Índex per The Complete Coding Manual a The Complete Coding Manual

“It’s up to you how far to take your coding adventure!” MORE THAN CODE For those of you old enough to remember the ‘80s, the golden era of home computing, the world of computing was a very different scene to how it is today. 8-bit computers that you could purchase as a whole, as opposed to being in kit form and you having to solder the parts together, were the stuff of dreams; and getting your hands on one was sheer bliss contained within a large plastic box. However, it wasn’t so much the new technology that computers then offered, moreover it was the fact that for the first time ever, you could control what was being viewed on the ‘television’. Instead of simply playing one of the thousands of…

Python creator Guido Van Rossum named Python after reading scripts from Monty Python’s Flying Circus. Alexa, Amazon’s Virtual Personal Assistant, uses Python to help with speech recognition. As of the end of 2018, Python was the most discussed language on the Internet. PYTHON AND LINUX SKILLS ARE THE THIRD MOST POPULAR I.T. SKILLS IN THE UK. Data analysis and Machine Learning are the two most used Python examples. Disney Pixar uses Python in its Renderman software to operate between other graphics packages. 16,000 There are over 16,000 Python jobs posted every six months in the UK. PYTHON SKILL-BASED POSITIONS ARE THE 16 th MOST SOUGHT-AFTER JOBS IN THE UK. Python Data Science is thought to become the most sought-after job in the coming years. Google is the top company for hiring…

PYTHON POWER Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language that was designed by Guido van Rossum in the late ‘80s, as a successor to the ABC Programming Language, and became available to use in 1990. The Python Software Foundation, a non-profit organisation devoted to both furthering and improving Python, currently develops the language. The foundation’s purpose is to “promote, protect, and advance the Python programming language, and to support and facilitate the growth of a diverse and international community of Python programmers.” The structure of Python code has been designed to flow easily, allowing those who are just beginning to code to follow it without too much difficulty. Yet, despite its ease of use, Python is regularly used throughout a number of industries in real-world scenarios. Big Data and AI…

STARTING PYTHON As when learning anything new, you need to start slow. You can pick up the pace as your experience grows, but for now, let’s just get something appearing on the screen. Don’t worry, you’ll soon be coding like a pro! STEP 1 Click on the Windows Start button, and start typing ‘idle’. The result will be the currently installed version of Python, IDLE (Python 3.7 32-bit), for example. You can Pin it to the Start for convenience, otherwise simply click the icon to launch the Python Shell. STEP 2 The Shell is where you can enter code and see the responses and output of code you’ve programmed into Python. This is a kind of sandbox, if you will, where you’re able to try out some simple code and…

COMMAND THE CODE Using the code we created in the previous tutorial, the one we named hello.py, let’s see how we can run code that was made in the GUI at the command line level. STEP 1 When you first installed Python, the installation routine automatically included all the necessary components to allow the execution of code outside of the GUI IDLE; in other words, the command line. To begin with, click on the Windows Start Button, and type: cmd. STEP 2 As you did when launching the Python IDLE, click on the returned result from the search, the Command Prompt App. This will launch a new window, with a black background and white text. This is the command line, also called a Terminal in macOS, Linux, and Raspberry Pi…

#COMMENTS! A method used by most programmers for keeping their code readable, is by commenting on certain sections. For example, if a variable is used, the programmer comments on what it’s supposed to do. It’s just good practise. STEP 1 We’ll start by creating a new instance of the IDLE Editor (File > New File), and then create a simple variable and print command: Save the file, and execute the code. STEP 2 Running the code will return the line: The value of A is, 10 into the IDLE Shell window – which is what we expected. Now let’s add some of the types of comments you’d normally see within code: STEP 3 Re-save the code and execute it. You’ll see that the output in the IDLE Shell is still…

FUNKY FUNCTIONS A function is a command that you enter into Python in order to do something. It’s a little piece of self-contained code that takes data, works on it, and then returns the result. STEP 1 It’s not only data that a function works on. Functions can do all manner of useful things in Python, such as sort data, change items from one format to another, and check the length or type of items. Basically, a function is a short word followed by brackets. For example, len(), list(), or type(). STEP 2 A function takes data, usually a variable, works on it depending on what the function is programmed to do, and returns the end value. The data being worked on goes inside the brackets, so if you wanted…

STEP 1 Let’s start with a simple while statement. Like if, this will check to see if something is TRUE, then run the indented code: STEP 2 The difference between if and while is that when while gets to the end of the indented code, it goes back and checks the statement is still true. In our example x is less than 10. With each loop, it prints the current value of x, then adds one to that value. When x does eventually equal 10 it’ll stop. STEP 3 The for loop, is another example. For is used to loop over a range of data, usually a list stored as variables inside square brackets. For example: STEP 4 The for loop can also be used in the countdown example by…

PLAYING WITH PI For this example, we’re going to create a program that will calculate the value of Pi to a set number of decimal places; as described by the user. It combines much of what we’ve learned, and a little more. STEP 1 Start by opening Python and creating a New File in the Editor. First, we need to get hold of an equation that can accurately calculate Pi without rendering the computer’s CPU useless for several minutes. The recommended calculation used in such circumstances is the Chudnovsky Algorithm, you can find more information about it at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chudnovsky_algorithm. STEP 2 We can utilise the Chudnovsky Algorithm to create our own Python script based on the calculation. We’ll begin by importing some important modules and functions within the modules: This…

THE IMMUTABLE TUPLE Reasons for having tuples vary depending on what the program is intended to do. Mostly a tuple is reserved for something special, but they’re also used, as an example, in an adventure game where non-playing character names are stored. STEP 1 A tuple is created the same way as a list, but in this instance you use curved brackets instead of square brackets. For example: STEP 2 As with lists, the items within a named tuple can be indexed according to their position in the data range: And so on. However, any attempt at deleting, or adding, to the tuple will result in an error in the Shell. STEP 3 You can create grouped tuples into lists that contain multiple sets of data. For instance, here we…

STRING FORMATTING Since Python 3, string formatting has become a much neater process, using the .format function combined with curly brackets. This makes things easier to follow and, as with most coding, there are other ways to do things but this way is recommended. STEP 1 The basic formatting in Python is to call each variable into the string using the curly brackets: STEP 2 Remember to close the print function with two sets of brackets, as you’ve encased the variable in one, and the print function in another. You can include multiple cases of string formatting in a single print function: STEP 3 We can, of course, also include integers into the mix: STEP 4 There are many different ways to apply string formatting, some are quite simple, as…

WRITE AND CLOSE The write() function is slightly more complex than read(). Along with the filename, you must also include an access mode that determines whether the file in question is in read or write mode. STEP 1 Start by opening IDLE and enter the following (obviously entering your own username location): This code will create a text file, called text.txt in write mode, using the variable ‘t’. If there’s no file of that name in the location, it will create one. If one already exits, it will overwrite it – so be careful. STEP 2 We can now write to the text file using the write() function. This works opposite to read(), writing lines instead of reading them. Try this: Note, the 109, it’s the number of characters you’ve…

LOGGING IN For this example, let’s look to a piece of code that will create user logins then allow them to log into the system, and write the time at which they logged in. We can even include an option to quit the program by pressing ‘q’. STEP 1 Let’s begin by importing the Time module, creating a new dictionary to handle the usernames and passwords, and creating a variable to evaluate the current status of the program: STEP 2 Next we need to define some functions. We can begin with creating the main menu, to where, after selecting the available options, all users will return: STEP 3 The global status statement separates a local variable from one that can be called throughout the code, this way we can use…

RANDOM NUMBERS There are numerous functions within the Random module, which, when applied, can create some interesting and very useful Python programs. STEP 1 As with other modules, you’ll need to import random before you can use any of the functions we’re going to look at in this tutorial. Let’s begin by simply printing a random number from 1 to 5: STEP 2 In our example the number three was returned. However, enter the print function a few more times and it will display different integer values from the set of numbers given, zero to five. The overall effect, although pseudo-random, is adequate for the average programmer to utilise in their code. STEP 3 For a bigger set of numbers, including floating point values, we can extend the range by…

BUILDING MODULES Modules are Python files, containing code, that you save using a .py extension. These are then imported into Python using the now familiar import command. STEP 1 Let’s start by creating a set of basic Mathematics functions. Multiply a number by two or three, and square or raise a number to an exponent (power). Create a New File in the IDLE and enter: STEP 2 Under the above code, enter functions to call the code: STEP 3 Now we’re going to take the function definitions out of the program and into a separate file. Highlight the function definitions and choose Edit > Cut. Choose File > New File and use Edit > Paste in the new window. We now have two separate files, one with the function definitions,…

C++ is one of the top programming languages in the industry. It’s quick, powerful, and used by nearly every major tech and gaming company in the world. Here’s some interesting facts about the rather wonderful C++. NASA, CERN, MICROSOFT, ORACLE, PAYPAL, LINKEDIN, AMAZON AND THE MILITARY USE C++. C++ is one of the predominant programming languages for the development of all kinds of technical and commercial software. C++ IS USED FREQUENTLY IN ANIMATION PROCESSES. 3D ANIMATION, MODELLING, AND SIMULATIONS ALL UTILISE C++. A lot of the Linux operating system is coded using C++, therefore you could say that most of the world’s Internet hosting servers are available thanks to C++. SUPERCOMPUTING USES C++ CODE TO CALCULATE VAST AMOUNTS OF DATA, INCLUDING THE NASA-BASED SUPERCOMPUTING FARM THAT RUNS SIMULATIONS OF THE…

XCODE Apple’s Xcode is primarily designed for users to develop apps for macOS, iOS, iPadOS, tvOS and watchOS applications in Swift or Objective-C, but you can use it for C++ too. STEP 1 Start by opening the App Store on your Mac, Apple Menu > App Store. In the Search box enter Xcode and press Return. There will be many suggestions filling the App Store window but it’s the first option, Xcode, that you need to click on. STEP 2 Take a moment to browse through the app’s information, including the compatibility to ensure you have the correct version of macOS. Xcode requires macOS 10.12.6 or later to install and work. STEP 3 When you’re ready, click on the Get button which then turns into ‘Install App’. Enter your Apple…

Within this section, you can begin to understand the structure of C++ code and how to compile and execute that code. The fundamentals of C++ will teach you the necessary basics, including using comments, variables, data types, strings, and how to use C++ mathematics. These are the building blocks of a C++ program. With them, you can form your own code, produce an output to the screen and store and retrieve data. Building a good foundation is key to mastering C++, and learning how to structure your C++ code will help you further down the line.…

GREETINGS FROM C++ Compiling and executing C++ code from Code::Blocks is extraordinarily easy; just a matter of clicking an icon and seeing the result. Here’s how it’s done. STEP 1 Open Code::Blocks, if you haven’t already, and load up the previously saved Hello World code you created. Ensure that there are no visible errors, such as missing semicolons at the end of the std::cout line. STEP 2 If your code is looking similar to the one in our screenshot, then look to the menu bar along the top of the screen. Under the Fortran entry in the topmost menu you can see a group of icons: a yellow cog, green play button and a cog/play button together. These are Build, Run, Build and Run functions. STEP 3 Start by clicking…

THE VALUE OF DATA There are many different data types available for the programmer in C++, such as an integer, floating point, Boolean, character and so on. It’s widely accepted that there are seven basic data types, often called Primitive Built-in Types; however, you can create your own data types should the need ever arise within your code. The seven basic data types are: These basic types can also be extended using the following modifiers: Long, Short, Signed and Unsigned. Basically this means the modifiers can expand the minimum and maximum range values for each data type. For example, the int data type has a default value range of-2147483648 to 2147483647, a fair value, you would agree. Now, if you were to use one of the modifiers, the range alters:…

There’s a satisfying feeling when you program code that asks the user for input, before using that input to produce something that the user can see. Even if it’s simply asking for someone’s name, and displaying a personal welcome message, it’s a big leap forward. User interaction, character literals, defining constants and file input and output are all covered in the following pages. All of which help you to understand more thoroughly how a C++ program works, and enables you to add that personal touch with improved user interaction in your own code.…

#DEFINE The pre-processors are instructions to the compiler to pre-process the information before it goes ahead and compiles the code. #include is a pre-processor as is #define. STEP 1 You can use the #define pre-processor to define any constants you want in our code. Start by creating a new C++ file complete with the usual headers: STEP 2 Now let’s assume your code has three different constants: length, width and height. You can define them with: STEP 3 Note the capitals for defined constants, it’s considered good programming practise to define all constants in capitals. Here, the assigned values are 50, 40 and 60, so let’s call them up: STEP 4 Build and run the code. Just as expected, it displays the values for each of the constants created. It’s…

TRUE OR FALSE? While loops are one of the most popular form of C++ code looping. They repeatedly run the code contained within the loop while the condition is true. Once it proves false, the code continues as normal. STEP 1 Clear what you’ve done so far and create a new C++ file. There’s no need for any extra headers at the moment, so add the standard headers as per usual: STEP 2 Create a simple while loop. Enter the code below, build and run (we’ve added comments to the screen shot): STEP 3 First you need to create a condition, so use a variable called num and give it the value 1. Now create the while loop, stating that as long as num is less than 30, the loop…

IF ONLY If uses a Boolean expression within its statement. If the Boolean expression is true, the code within the statement is executed. If not, then the code after the statement is executed instead. STEP 1 First, create a new C++ file and enter the relevant standard headers, as usual: STEP 2 If is best explained when you use a numberbased condition: STEP 3 What’s going on here? To begin, an integer called num was created and assigned with the value of 1. The if statement comes next, and in this case we’ve instructed the code that if the condition, the value, of num is less than 1, then the code within the braces should be executed. STEP 4 The second cout statement displays the current value of num and…

.BAT MAN A Windows batch file is simply a script file that runs a series of commands, one line at a time, much in the same fashion as a Linux script. The series of commands are executed by the command line interpreter and stored in a plain text file with the .BAT extension; this signifies to Windows that it’s an executable file, in this case, a script. Batch files have been around since the earliest versions of Microsoft DOS. Although not exclusively a Microsoft scripting file, batch files are mainly associated with Microsoft’s operating systems. In the early days, when a PC booted into a version of DOS (which produced a simple command prompt when powered up), the batch file was used in the form of a system file called…

INPUT, OUTPUT Batch files are capable of taking a normal Windows command and executing it, while also adding extra options and flags in to the equation. STEP 1 Let’s keep things simple to begin with. Create a new batch file called ‘dirview.bat’, short for Directory View. Start with the @echo off command and under that add: STEP 2 The new line uses the dir command to list the contents of the directory Batch Files, in your Home directory, dumping the output to a text file called dirview.txt in the root of your Home directory. This is done, so that the Windows UAC doesn’t require elevated permissions, as everything is in your own Home area. Save and run the batch file. STEP 3 You have no doubt noticed that there is…

COUNTERS Creating code that counts in increasing or decreasing number sets is great for demonstrating loops. With that in mind, let’s look at the If statement a little more, alongside more variables, and introduce the Else, Timeout and eof (End of File) commands. STEP 1 Start by creating a new batch file called count.bat. Enter the following, save it and run: STEP 2 The count. bat code starts at number one and counts, scrolling down the screen, until it reaches 100. The Timeout command leaves a one second gap between numbers and the Else statement continues until the counter variable equals 100 before going to the eof (End Of File), thus closing the loop. STEP 3 The count.bat is a rough way of demonstrating a loop; a better approach would…

THE WINDOWS WAY The two systems use slightly different ways to accomplish the same task; Windows is slightly easier (by a single command) so we’ll start with that. STEP 1 Let’s begin by creating a sample folder within your Python directory; call it batpy, for example. Within the batpy folder, create a new text file and enter the following: STEP 2 We won’t go into the intricacies of Windows batch files here. Suffice to say this code will ask for a user’s name, store the name as a variable called name, display a message, then open the Python code we’re about to create. We need to save the file as a batch file, click File > Save As, call it batpy1.bat and set Save As Type as All Files. STEP…

LOAD”” Back in the 80s, in the 8-bit home computing era, loading screens were often used to display the cover of a game as it loaded from tape. The image would load itself in, usually one-line-at-a-time, then proceed to colour itself in while the loading raster bars danced around in the borders of the screen. Loading screens were a part of the package, and the buy-in for the whole game as an experience. Some loading screens featured animations, or a countdown for time remaining as the game loads, while others even went so far as to include some kind of playable game. The point being: a loading screen is not just an artistic part of computing history, but an introduction to the program that’s about to be run. While these…

X=MISTAKE, PRINT Y There are many pitfalls for the programmer to be aware of, far too many to be listed here. Being able to recognise a mistake and fix it is when you start to move into more advanced territory, and become a better coder. Everyone makes mistakes, even coders with over thirty years’ experience. Learning from these basic, common mistakes help build a better coding foundation. SMALL CHUNKS It would be wonderful to be able to work like Neo from The Matrix movies. Simply ask, your operator loads it into your memory and you instantly know everything about the subject. Sadly though, we can’t do that. The first major pitfall is someone trying to learn too much, too quickly. So take coding in small pieces and take your time.…

Where to start learning how to code? Remarkably, this is the most difficult step. There are plenty of programming languages out there, and a seemingly unlimited number of tools to help you achieve what you want; but where do you begin? In this section, we look at what you will need to take those first tentative steps into the world of coding. You won’t become a programmer in twenty-four hours, learning how to code correctly takes time and patience, but with a little help, you can master the basics and start your coding journey.…

SQL SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases. Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are different versions of the SQL language. However, to be compliant, they all support at least the major commands such as Select, Update and Delete in a similar manner. JAVASCRIPT JavaScript (often shortened to JS) is a lightweight, interpreted, object-oriented language with first class functions. JavaScript runs on the client side of the web, that can be used to design or program how the web pages behave on the occurrence of an event. JavaScript is an easy to learn and also powerful scripting language, widely used for controlling web page behaviour. JAVA Java is the foundation for virtually every type of networked…

PYTHON POWER Ever since the earliest home computers were available, enthusiasts, users and professionals have toiled away until the wee hours, slaving over an overheating heap of circuitry to create something akin to magic. These pioneers of programming carved their way into a new frontier, forging small routines that enabled the letter ‘A’ to scroll across the screen. It may not sound terribly exciting to a generation that’s used to ultra high-definition graphics and open world, multiplayer online gaming. However, forty-something years ago it was blindingly brilliant. Naturally these bedroom coders helped form the foundations for every piece of digital technology we use today. Some went on to become chief developers for top software companies, whereas others pushed the available hardware to its limits and founded the billion pound gaming…

INSTALLING PYTHON 3.X Microsoft Windows doesn’t come with Python preinstalled as standard, so it will be necessary to install it yourself manually. Thankfully, it’s an easy process to follow. STEP 1 Start by opening your web browser to www.python.org/downloads/. Look for the button detailing the Download link for Python 3.x. Python is regularly updated, changing the last digit for each bug fix and update. Therefore, don’t worry if you see Python 3.8, or more, as long as it’s Python 3, the code in this book will work fine. STEP 2 Click the Download button for version 3.x and save the file to your Downloads folder. When the file is downloaded, double-click the executable and the Python installation wizard will launch. From here, you have two choices: Install Now and Customise…

PLAYING WITH PYTHON As with most languages, computer or human, it’s all about remembering and applying the right words to the right situation. You’re not born knowing these words, so you need to learn them. STEP 1 If you’ve closed Python 3 IDLE, re-open it as you did in the previous page. In the Shell, enter the familiar following: STEP 2 As predicted, the word Hello appears in the Shell as blue text indicating output from a string. It’s fairly straightforward, and doesn’t require too much explanation. Now try: STEP 3 You’ll notice that instead of the number 4, the output is the 2+2 you asked to be printed to the screen. The quotation marks are defining what’s being outputted to the IDLE Shell, to print the total of 2+2…

VARIOUS VARIABLES We’ll be working with the Python 3 IDLE Shell in this tutorial. If you haven’t already, open Python 3 or close down the previous IDLE Shell to clear up any old code. STEP 1 In some programming languages, you’re required to use a dollar sign to denote a string, which is a variable made up of multiple characters, such as a name of a person. In Python this isn’t necessary, so, for example, in the Shell enter: name=”David Hayward” (use your own name, unless you’re also called David Hayward). STEP 2 You can check the type of variable in use by issuing the type () command, placing the name of the variable inside the brackets. In our example, this would be: type (name). Add a new string variable:…

STEP 1 Choose File > New File to enter the editor, let’s create a function called Hello that will greet a user. Enter: Press F5 to save and run the script. You’ll see Hello in the Shell, type in Hello() and it’ll return the new function. STEP 2 Let’s now expand the function to accept a variable, the user’s name for example. Edit your script to read: This will now accept the variable name, otherwise it will print Hello David. In the Shell, enter: name=(“Bob”), then, Hello(name). Your function can now pass variables through it. STEP 3 To modify it further, delete the Hello(“David”) line, the last line in the script, and press Ctrl+S to save the new script. Close the Editor and create a new file (File > New…

MASTERING MODULES Think of modules as an extension that’s imported into your Python code to enhance and extend its capabilities. There are countless modules available, and as we’ve seen, you can even make your own. STEP 1 Although good, the built-in functions within Python are limited. The use of modules, however, allows us to make more sophisticated programs. As you are aware, modules are Python scripts that are imported, such as import math. STEP 2 Some modules, especially on the Raspberry Pi, are included by default; the Math module is a prime example. Sadly, other modules aren’t always available. A good example on non-Pi platforms is the Pygame module, which contains many functions to help create games. Try: import pygame. STEP 3 The result is an error in the IDLE…

Data is everything. It’s worth more than gold or oil, and with it, you can elect presidents or topple governments, find out the secrets of the universe or predict the money markets. Data is power, so, to get the most from your code, you’ll need to know how to use it and how to manipulate it. This section will introduce you to Python’s ability to cope with data and how it can be organised in your code. We look at how graphics are created and how to read and write data from other sources and output to external files.…

KEY PAIRS A dictionary is like a list, but instead each data item comes as a pair, these are known as Key and Value. The Key part must be unique and can either be a number or string, but the Value can be any data item you like. STEP 1 Let’s say you want to create a phonebook in Python. You would create the dictionary name, and contain the data in curly brackets, separating the key and value by a colon Key:Value. For example: STEP 2 As with most lists, tuples, and so on, strings need to be enclosed in quotes (single or double), while integers can be left open. Remember that the value can be either a string, or an integer, you just need to enclose the relevant one…

TIME LORDS The Time module contains functions that help you retrieve the current system time, read the date from strings, format the time and date, and much more. STEP 1 First you need to import the Time module. It’s one that’s built-in to Python 3, so you shouldn’t need to drop into a command prompt and pip install it. Once it’s imported, we can call the current time and date with a simple command: STEP 2 The time function is split into nine tuples, these are divided up into indexed items, as with any other tuple, and shown in the screen shot below. STEP 3 You can see the structure of how time is presented by entering: STEP 4 There are numerous functions built into the Time module. One of…

EXCEPTIONAL OBJECTS Rather than stop the flow of your code, Python includes exception objects, which handle unexpected errors in the code. We can combat errors by creating conditions where exceptions may occur. STEP 1 You can create an exception error by simply trying to divide a number by zero. This will report back with the ZeroDivisionError: Division by zero message, as seen in the screenshot. The ZeroDivisionError part is the exception class, of which there are many. STEP 2 Most exceptions are raised automatically when Python comes across something that’s inherently wrong with the code. However, we can create our own exceptions that are designed to contain the potential error and react to it, as opposed to letting the code fail. STEP 3 We can use the functions raise exception…

WORKING WITH DATES The Calendar module is built into Python 3. However, if, it’s not installed, you can add it using pip install calendar, as a Windows administrator, or sudo pip install calendar for Linux and macOS. STEP 1 Launch Python 3 and enter: import calendar to call up the module and its inherent functions. Once it’s loaded into memory, start by entering: STEP 2 You can see that the days of September 2019 are displayed in a wall calendar fashion. Naturally you can change the 2019, 9 part of the second line, to any year and month you want, a birthday for example (1973, 6). The first line configures TextCalendar to start its weeks on a Sunday; you can opt for Monday if you prefer. STEP 3 There are…

GETTING GUI Tkinter is easy to use, but there’s a lot more you can do with it. Let’s start by seeing how it works, and then getting some code into it. STEP 1 Tkinter is usually built into Python 3, however if it’s available when you enter: import tkinter, then you’ll need to pip install tkinter from the command prompt. We can start to import modules differently than before, to save on typing, by importing all their contents: STEP 2 Although it’s not recommended to import everything from a module using the asterisk, normally it won’t do any harm. Let’s begin by creating a basic GUI window, enter: This creates a small, basic window. At this point, there’s not much else to do but click the X in the corner…

C++ is an amazing programming language. Most of what you see in front of you when you power up your computer, regardless of whether you’re using Windows, macOS or Linux, is created using C++. Being able to code in C++ opens a whole new world for you, in terms of desirable professional skills and the ability to code amazing apps and games. C++ is an efficient and powerful language that’s used to develop operating systems, applications, games and much more in science, engineering, banking, education and the space industry, among others. This section looks at the necessary equipment and software needed to get up and running with C++ for Windows, Mac and Linux systems.…

C++ SETUPS As most, if not all, operating systems have C++ at their core, it stands to reason that you can learn to program in C++ no matter what OS you’re currently using. □ COMPUTER Unless you fancy writing out your C++ code by hand on a sheet of paper (which is something many older coders used to do), then a computer is an absolute must have component. PC users can have any recent Linux distro or Windows OS, Mac users the latest macOS. □ AN IDE As with Python, an IDE is used to enter and execute your C++ code. Many IDEs come with extensions and plugins that help make it work better, or add an extra level of functionality. Often, an IDE will provide enhancements depending on the…

LINUX++ For this example, we’re using a fresh installation of Linux Mint. However, these also work if you’re using Ubuntu or any other Debian-based Linux OS. STEP 1 The first step with ensuring Linux is ready for your C++ code is check the system and software are up to date. Open a Terminal and enter: sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade. Press Return and enter your password. These commands updates the entire system and any installed software. STEP 2 Most Linux distros come preinstalled with all the necessary components to start coding in C++. However, it’s always worth checking to see if everything is present, so still within the Terminal, enter: sudo apt-get install build-essential and press Return. If you have the right components, nothing is installed but if…

HELLO, WORLD! It’s traditional in programming for the first code to be entered to output the words ‘Hello, World!’ to the screen. Interestingly, this dates back to 1968 using a language called BCPL. STEP 1 As mentioned, we’re using Windows 10 and the latest version of Code::Blocks for the rest of the C++ code in this book. Begin by launching Code::Blocks. When open, click on File > New > Empty File or press Ctrl+Shift+N on the keyboard. STEP 2 Now you can see a blank screen, with the tab labelled *Untitled1, and the number one in the top left of the main Code::Blocks window. Begin by clicking in the main window, so the cursor is next to the number one, and entering: STEP 3 At the moment it doesn’t look…

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMENTING Comments inside code are basically human readable descriptions that detail what the code is doing at that particular point. They don’t sound especially important but code without comments is one of the many frustrating areas of programming, regardless of whether you’re a professional or just starting out. In short, all code should be commented in such a manner as to effectively describe the purpose of a line, section, or individual elements. You should get in to the habit of commenting as much as possible, by imagining that someone who doesn’t know anything about programming can pick up your code and understand what it’s going to do simply by reading your comments. In a professional environment, comments are vital to the success of the code and ultimately,…

STRING THEORY There are different ways in which you can create a string of characters, which historically are all carried over from the original C language, and are still supported by C++. STEP 1 To create a string you use the char function. Open a new C++ file and begin with the usual header: STEP 2 It’s easy to confuse a string with an array. Here’s an array, which can be terminated with a null character: STEP 3 Build and run the code, and ‘Welcome’ appears on the screen. While this is perfectly fine, it’s not a string. A string is a class, which defines objects that can be represented as a stream of characters and doesn’t need to be terminated like an array. The code can therefore be represented…

HELLO, DAVE You have already used cout, the standard output stream, throughout our code. Now you’re going to be using cin, the standard input stream, to prompt a user response. STEP 1 Anything that you want the user to input into the program needs to be stored somewhere in the system memory, so it can be retrieved and used. Therefore, any input must first be declared as a variable, so it’s ready to be used by the user. Start by creating a blank C++ file with headers. STEP 2 The data type of the variable must also match the type of input you want from the user. For example, to ask a user their age, you would use an integer like this: STEP 3 The cin command works in the…

FSTREAMS There are two main data types within the fstream library that are used to open a file, read from it and write to it; these are ofstream and ifstream. Here’s how they work. STEP 1 The first task is to create a new C++ file and along with the usual headers you need to include the new fstream header: STEP 2 Begin by asking a user for their name and writing that information to a file. You need the usual string to store the name, and getline to accept the input from the user. STEP 3 We’ve included comments in the screenshot of step 2 to help you understand the process. You created a string called name, to store the user’s inputted name. You also created a text file…

LOOPY LOOPS The initialise stage of a for loop is executed only once and this sets the point reference for the loop. The condition is evaluated by the loop to see if it’s true or false and then the increment is executed. The loop then repeats the second and third stage. STEP 1 Create a new C++ file, with the standard headers: STEP 2 Start simple and create a for loop that counts from 1 to 30, displaying the value to the screen with each increment: STEP 3 Working through the process of the for loop, begin by creating an integer called num and assigning it a value of 1. Next, set the condition, in this case num being less than 30. The last stage is where you create the…

IF YES, ELSE NO There are two sections of code that can be executed depending on the outcome in an if… else statement. It’s quite easy to visualise once you get used to its structure. STEP 1 Begin with a new C++ file and the standard headers: STEP 2 Let’s expand the code from the if statement on the previous page: STEP 3 The first line in the code creates the integer called num and gives it a value of 1. The if statement checks to see if the value of num is less than thirty and if it is it outputs “The number is less than 30!” to the console. STEP 4 The else companion to if checks if the number is greater than 30 and if so, then…

Just like any other programming interface that can directly interrogate and manipulate the system, batch files require a certain amount of care when programming. It’s hard to damage your system with a batch file, as the more important elements of the modern Windows system are protected by the User Account Control (UAC) security; UAC works by only allowing elevated privileges access to important system files. Therefore if you create a batch file that somehow deletes a system file, the UAC activates and stop the process. However, if you’re working in the command prompt with elevated privileges to begin with, as the Administrator, then the UAC won’t question the batch file and continue regardless of what files are being deleted. That said, you’re not likely to create a batch file that…

USING MORE VARIABLES Here’s a good example of mixing system and environmental variables with some of your own creation, along with a number of external Windows commands. STEP 1 Create a new batch file called list.bat and start it off with the @echo off command. Begin by clearing the command prompt screen and displaying a list of the current directories on the computer: STEP 2 Save and execute the batch file. Within the command prompt you can see the contents of all the files and directories from the root of the C:\ drive; and as any user under Windows has permission to see this, there’s no UAC elevated privileges required. STEP 3 Now, create a batch file that displays the contents of any directory and post it as a text…

Based on what you’ve looked at so far with batch files, you can probably come up with your own simple text adventure or multiple-choice game. Here’s one that we created, that you’re free to fiddle with and make your own. Make up your own questions but how about also including an introductory or loading screen? Make your loading screen in a separate batch file and save it as screens.bat (for example). Then, from the main game batch file, you can load it at the beginning of the file with the ‘call’ command followed by colour to reset the game’s colours:…

THE GOLDEN ERA OF CODE While it may seem a little counterproductive to learn how to code in a language that’s virtually obsolete, there are some surprising benefits to getting your hands dirty with a bit of retro coding. Firstly, learning old code will help you build the structure of code as, regardless of whether it is a language that was developed yesterday, or forty years ago, code still demands strict discipline to work correctly. Secondly, everyday coding elements such as loops, sub routines and so on are a great visual aid to learn in older code, especially BASIC. Lastly, it’s simply good fun. GOING BASIC The easiest retro language to play around with is, without doubt, BASIC. Developed back in the mid-sixties, BASIC (Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is…

TO BOLDLY GO… Indeed, the ISS is something most of us consider as a worthy example of what can happen when we work together. NASA, among other agencies, uses a wealth of Python code on-board the ISS to help automate routines, as well as act as an in-between link to translate code from one language to another, and then into a human-readable format. If you’re considering a career in space, then learning Python is a must-have skill. While we’re not able to fill you in on all the details, regarding the code the ISS utilises, we can look at a fun Python script that will track the ISS, display the number of astronauts on board, update the station’s current latitude and longitude every five seconds, while also displaying your current…

DEF BEGINNER(MISTAKES=10) Here are ten common Python programming mistakes most beginners find themselves making. Being able to identify these mistakes will save you headaches in the future. VERSIONS To add to the confusion that most beginners already face when coming into programming, Python has two live versions of its language available to download and use. There is Python version 2.7.x and Python 3.6.x. The 3.6.x version is the most recent, and the one we’d recommend starting. But, version 2.7.x code doesn’t always work with 3.6.x code and vice versa. THE INTERNET Every programmer has and does at some point go on the Internet and copy some code to insert into their own routines. There’s nothing wrong with using others’ code, but you need to know how the code works and…

01000011 01101111 01100100 01100101 Essentially all forms of coding are made up of ones and zeros, on or off states. This works for a modern computer and even the oldest known computational device. ~87 BC It’s difficult to pinpoint an exact start of when humans began to ‘program’ a device. However, it’s widely accepted that the Antikythera Mechanism is possibly the first ‘coded’ artefact. It’s dated to about 87 BC and is an ancient Greek analogue computer and orrery used to predict astronomical positions. ~850 AD The Banū Mūsā brothers, three Persian scholars who worked in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, published the Book of Ingenious Devices in around 850 AD. Among the inventions listed was a mechanical musical instrument, a hydro-powered organ that played interchangeable cylinders automatically. 1800…

Coding can be one of those experiences that sounds fantastic, but to get going with it, is often confusing. After all, there’s a plethora of languages to choose from, numerous apps that will enable you to code in a specific, or range, of languages and an equally huge amount of third-party software to consider. Then you access the Internet and discover that there are countless coding tutorials available, for the language in which you’ve decided you want to program, alongside even more examples of code. It’s all a little too much at times. The trick is to slow down and, to begin with, not look too deeply into coding. Like all good projects, you need a solid foundation on which to build your skill and to have all the necessary…

WHAT WE’RE USING Thankfully, Python is a multi-platform programming language available for Windows, macOS, Linux, Raspberry Pi and more. If you have one of those systems, then you can easily start using Python. □ COMPUTER Obviously you’re going to need a computer in order to learn how to program in Python and to test your code. You can use Windows (from XP onward) on either a 32 or 64-bit processor, an Apple Mac or Linux installed PC. □ AN IDE An IDE (Integrated Developer Environment) is used to enter and execute Python code. It enables you to inspect your program code and the values within the code, as well as offering advanced features. There are many different IDEs available, so find the one that works for you and gives the…

PYTHON PENGUIN Linux is such a versatile operating system that it’s often difficult to nail down just one-way of doing something. Different distributions go about installing software in different ways, so for this particular tutorial we will stick to Linux Mint. STEP 1 First you need to ascertain which version of Python is currently installed in your Linux system. To begin with, drop into a Terminal session from your distro’s menu, or hit the Ctrl+Alt+T keys. STEP 2 Next, enter: python --version into the Terminal screen. You should have the output relating to version 2.x of Python in the display. Most Linux distro come with both Python 2 and 3 by default, as there’s plenty of code out there still available for Python 2. Now enter: python3 --version. STEP 3…

EDITING CODE You will eventually reach a point where you have to move on from inputting single lines of code into the Shell. Instead, the IDLE Editor will allow you to save and execute your Python code. STEP 1 First, open the Python IDLE Shell. When it’s up, click on File > New File, this will open a new window with Untitled as its name. This is the Python IDLE Editor, and within it, you can enter the code you need to create your future programs. STEP 2 The IDLE Editor is, for all intents and purposes, a simple text editor with Python features, colour coding and so on. You enter code as you would within the Shell, so taking an example from the previous tutorial, enter: STEP 3 As…

IT’S ALL MATHS, MAN You can get some really impressive results from the mathematical powers of Python, as maths is the driving force behind the code with most, if not all, programming languages. STEP 1 Open up the GUI version of Python 3, as mentioned you can use either the Shell or the Editor. For the time being, we’re going to use the Shell. If you’ve opted to use a third-party text editor, note that you need to get to the IDLE Shell for this part of the tutorial. STEP 2 In the Shell enter the following: As you can see, Python can handle some quite large numbers. STEP 3 You can use all the customary Mathematical operations: divide, multiply, brackets and so on. Practise with a few, for example:…

USER FRIENDLY The type of input you want from the user will depend greatly on the type of program you’re coding. A game, for example, may ask for a character’s name, whereas a database can ask for personal details. STEP 1 If it’s not already, open the Python 3 IDLE Shell, and start a New File in the Editor. Let’s begin with something really simple, enter: STEP 2 Save and execute the code, and, as you no doubt suspected, in the IDLE Shell the program will ask for your first name, storing it as the variable firstname, followed by your surname; also stored in its own variable (surname). STEP 3 Now that we have the user’s name stored in a couple of variables, we can call them up whenever we…

TRUE CONDITIONS Keeping conditions simple, to begin with, makes learning to program a more enjoyable experience. Let’s start then by checking if something is TRUE, then doing something else if it isn’t. STEP 1 Let’s create a new Python program that will ask the user to input a word, then check it to see if it’s a four-letter word or not. Start with File > New File, and begin with the input variable: STEP 2 Now we can create a new variable, then use the len function and pass the word variable through it to get the total number of letters the user has just entered: STEP 3 Now we’ll use an if statement to check if the word_ length variable is equal to four, and print a friendly conformation…

DEBUGGING Errors in code are called bugs, they’re perfectly normal and can often be easily rectified with a little patience. The important thing is to keep looking, experimenting, and testing. Eventually your code will be bug free. STEP 1 Code isn’t as fluid as the written word, no matter how good the programming language is. Python is certainly easier than most languages, but even it is prone to some annoying bugs. The most common are typos by the user, and while easy to find in simple dozen-line code, imagine having to debug multi-thousand line code. STEP 2 As we’ve mentioned, the most common of errors is the typo, often at the command level, mistyping the print command for example. However, they also occur when you’ve got numerous variables, all of…

WORKING WITH LISTS Lists are extremely handy in Python. A list can be strings, integers, and also variables. You can even include functions in lists, and lists within lists. STEP 1 A list is a sequence of data values called items. You create the name of your list followed by an equal sign, then square brackets and the items separated by commas; note that strings use quotes: STEP 2 Once you’ve defined your list, you can call each by referencing its name followed by a number. Lists start the first item entry as 0, followed by 1, 2, 3, and so on. For example: To call up the entire contents of the list. To call the item third from zero in the list (21 in this case). STEP 3 You…

STRING THEORIES We’ve already looked at some list functions, using .insert, .remove, and .pop, but there are also functions that can be applied to strings. STEP 1 The main tool in the string function arsenal is .split(). With it, you’re able to split apart a string of data, based on the argument within the brackets. For example, here’s a string with three items, each separated by a space: STEP 2 Now let’s turn the string into a list, and split the content accordingly: And enter the name of the new list, names, to see the three items. STEP 3 Note that the text.split part contains the brackets, quotes, then a space followed by closing quotes and brackets. The space is the separator, indicating that each list item entry is separated…

OPEN, READ AND WRITE In Python, you create a file object, similar to creating a variable, only you pass in the file using the open() function. Files are usually categorised as text or binary. STEP 1 Start by entering some text into your system’s text editor. The text editor is preferable to a word processor, as word processors include background formatting and other elements. In our example, we have the poem The Cimmerian, by Robert E Howard, and we’ve saved the file as poem.txt. STEP 2 You use the open() function to pass the file into a variable as an object. You can name the file object anything you like, but you will need to tell Python the name and location of the text file you’re opening: The reason for…

GOING GRAPHICAL You can draw simple graphics, lines, squares and so on, or you can use one of the many Python modules available to bring out some spectacular effects. STEP 1 One of the best graphical modules to begin learning Python graphics is Turtle. The Turtle module is, as the name suggests, based on the turtle robots used in many schools that can be programmed to draw something on a large piece of paper on the floor. The Turtle module can be imported with: import turtle. STEP 2 Let’s begin by drawing a simple circle. Start a New File, then enter the following code: As usual press F5 to save the code and execute it. This will open up a new window and the ‘Turtle’ will draw a circle. STEP…

INTO THE SYSTEM One of the primary features of the OS module is the ability to list, move, create, delete and otherwise interact with files stored on the system; making it the perfect module for backup code. STEP 1 We can start the OS module with some simple functions to see how it interacts with the operating system environment that Python is running on. If you’re using Linux, or the Raspberry Pi, try this: STEP 2 The returned result, from printing the variable home, is the current user’s home folder on the system. In Step 1 that’s/home/pi, it will be different depending on the user name you login as, and the operating system you use. For example, Windows 10 would output: C:\Users\david\AppData\ Local\Programs\Python\Python37-32. STEP 3 The Windows output is different…

PYGAMING As stated, Pygame isn’t an inherent module to Python. Those using the Raspberry Pi will already have it installed. Everyone else will need to use pip install pygame from the command prompt. STEP 1 Naturally, we need to load up the Pygame modules into memory before we’re able to utilise them. Once that’s done, Pygame requires the user to initialise it prior to any of the functions being used: STEP 2 Let’s create a simple, game ready window and give it a title: You will notice that after the first line is entered, you’ll need to click back into the IDLE Shell to continue entering code. In addition, you can change the title of the window to anything you like. STEP 3 Sadly, you can’t close the newly created…

C EVERYTHING Due to both the complexity of the language and its power and performance, C++ is often used to develop games, programs, device drivers, and even entire operating systems. Dating back to 1979, the start of the golden era of home computing, C++, or rather C with Classes, was the brainchild of Danish computer scientist Bjarne Stroustrup, while working on his Ph.D thesis. Stroustrup’s plan was to further the original C language, which had been widely used since the early seventies. C++ proved to be popular among the developers of the 80s, since it was a much easier environment with which to get to grips, and, more importantly, it was 99% compatible with the original C language. This meant that, beyond the mainstream computing labs, regular people who didn’t…

CODE::BLOCKS Code::Blocks is a free C++, C and Fortran IDE that is feature rich and easily extendible with plugins. It’s easy to use, comes with a compiler and has a vibrant community behind it too. STEP 1 Start by visiting the Code::Blocks download site, at www.codeblocks.org/downloads. From there, click on the ‘Download the binary releases’ link to be taken to the latest downloadable version for Windows. STEP 2 There you can see, there are several Windows versions available. The one you want to download has mingw-setup.exe at the end of the current version number. At the time of writing this is: codeblocks-17.12mingw-setup.exe. The difference is that the mingw-setup version includes a C++ compiler and debugger from TDM-GCC (a compiler suite). STEP 3 When you’ve located the file, click on the…

DEVELOPING C++ Here are ten great C++ IDEs that are worth looking into. You can install one or all of them if you like, but find the one that works best for you. ECLIPSE Eclipse is a hugely popular C++ IDE that offers the programmer a wealth of features. It has a great, clean interface, is easy to use and available for Windows, Linux and Mac. Head over to www.eclipse.org/downloads/ to download the latest version. If you’re stuck, click the Need Help link for more information. GNAT The GNAT Programming Studio (GPS) is a powerful and intuitive IDE that supports testing, debugging and code analysis. The Community Edition is free, whereas the Pro version costs; however, the Community Edition is available for Windows, Mac, Linux and even the Raspberry Pi.…

#INCLUDE <C++ STRUCTURE> Learning the basics of programming, you begin to understand the structure of a program. The commands may be different from one language to the next, but you will start to see how the code works. C++ C++ was invented by Danish student Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979, as a part of his Ph.D. thesis. Initially C++ was called C with Classes, which added features to the already popular C programming language, while making it a more user-friendly environment through a new structure. Bjarne Stroustrup, inventor of C++. #INCLUDE The structure of a C++ program is quite precise. Every C++ code begins with a directive: #include <>. The directive instructs the pre-processor to include a section of the standard C++ code. For example: #include <iostream> includes the iostream header…

THE DECLARATION OF VARIABLES You can declare a C++ variable by using statements within the code. There are several distinct types of variables you can declare. Here’s how it works. STEP 1 Open up a new, blank C++ file and enter the usual code headers: STEP 2 Start simple by creating two variables, a and b, with one having a value of 10 and the other 5. You can use the data type int to declare these variables. Within the curly brackets, enter: STEP 3 You can build and run the code but it won’t do much, other than store the values 10 and 5 to the integers a and b. To output the contents of the variables, add: The cout << “\n”; part simply places a new line between…

C++ = MC2 The basic mathematical symbols apply in C++ as they do in most other programming languages. However, by using the C++ Math Library, you can also calculate square roots, powers, trig and more. STEP 1 C++’s mathematical operations follow the same patterns as those taught in school, in that multiplication and division take precedence over addition and subtraction. You can alter that though. For now, create a new file and enter STEP 2 While simple, it does get the old maths muscle warmed up. Note that we used a float for the numbers variable. While you can happily use an integer, if you suddenly started to use decimals, you would need to change to a float or a double, depending on the accuracy needed. Run the code and…

ESCAPE SEQUENCE When used in something like a cout statement, character literals are also called escape sequence codes. They allow you to insert a quote, an alert, new line and much more. STEP 1 Create a new C++ file and enter the relevant headers: STEP 2 You’ve already experienced the \n character literal placing a new line wherever it’s called. The line: cout << “Hello\n” << “I’m a C++\n” << “Program\n”; outputs three lines of text, each starting after the last \n. STEP 3 If you wanted to insert speech quotes inside a cout statement, you would have to use a backslash as it already uses quotes: STEP 4 There’s even a character literal that can trigger an alarm. In Windows 10, it’s the notification sound that chimes when you…

Loops and repetition are one of the most critical factors of any programming language. Proper use of a loop creates a program that delivers the desired outcome precisely as predicted, without issues or errors. Without loops and decision making events within the code, your program will never be able to offer the user any choice. It’s this understanding of choice that elevates your skills as a programmer and makes for much better code. Creating a successful loop gives the code a beginning, middle and end ready to start again, should the user wish to. It also forms the basis for advanced Artificial Intelligence routines.…

DO LOOPS The good thing about a do… while loop is that it’s guaranteed to run through at least once. It’s structure is: do, followed by statements, while condition is true. This is how it works. STEP 1 Begin with a new, blank C++ file and enter the standard headers: STEP 2 Begin with a simple number count: STEP 3 Now, here’s a look at the structure of a do… while loop. First you create an integer called num, with the value of 1. Now the do… while loops begins. The code inside the body of the loop is executed at least once, then the condition is checked for either true or false. STEP 4 If the condition is true, the loop is executed. This continues until the condition is…

Windows batch files have been around since the early days of Microsoft DOS. They are simple, yet effective, command-line scripts that can be coded to perform a function; covering everything from automation of system processes to creating a command-line based game. Windows 10 may be the most advanced version of Microsoft’s operating system, but it still has the ability to create batch files. Learning how to code and create a batch file will help you discover the deeper elements of the Windows OS; leading you on to more specific administrative concepts such as Microsoft’s PowerShell.…

A NEW BATCH Throughout this section on batch files we’re going to be working with Notepad, the command prompt and within a folder called ‘Batch Files’. To begin with, let’s see how you get to the Windows command prompt. STEP 1 The Windows command prompt may look a little daunting to the newcomer but it’s simply another interface (or Shell) used to access the filesystem. You can go anywhere you like in the command prompt, as you would with the graphical interface. To begin, click on the Windows Start button and enter CMD into the search box. STEP 2 Click on the search result labelled Command Prompt (Desktop App) and a new window pops up. The Command Prompt window isn’t much to look at to begin with but you can…

SEARCHING FOR FILES Here’s an interesting little batch file that you can easily extend for your own use. It asks the user for a file type to search for and displays the results. STEP 1 We are introducing a couple of new commands into the mix here but we think they’re really useful. Create a new batch file called seek.bat and in it put: STEP 2 The new command in this instance is color (Americanised spelling). Color, as you already assume, changes the colour of the command prompt display. The color attributes are specified by two hex digits, the first corresponds to the background colour of the Command console and the second to the foreground, and can be any of the following values: STEP 3 Now let’s extend the seek.bat…

This section features some fantastic coding projects and ideas that you can use in your own code. Want to add something a little extra to your code? How about creating a loading screen, or some amazing text animations using ASCII characters? There’s code here to track the ISS in real-time, and we even look back at some retro coding, using BBC Micro BASIC, to give you a better understanding of how other forms of code come together and work. There are always more ideas to code, so keep learning and keep coding!…

THE FINAL COUNTDOWN Let’s begin with some example code that will display a large countdown from ten, then clear the screen and display a message. The code itself is quite simple, but lengthy. You will need to start by importing the OS and Time modules, then start creating functions that display the numbers: and so on to 10. It’ll take some time, but it’s worth it in the end. Of course, you can always take a different approach and design the numbers yourself. The next step of the process is to initialise the code settings and start the countdown: And finally, we can add a display for the message: The code in its entirety can be viewed from within our Code Repository: https://bdmpublications.com/ code-portal, where you’re free to copy it…

ASCII ANIMATION Let’s assume you wanted to create an animated ASCII Happy Birthday Python script, with the words Happy and Birthday alternating in appearance. Here’s how it’s done. STEP 1 First we need to create some ASCII-like text, head over to http://patorjk.com/software/taag. This is an online Text to ASCII generator, created by Patrick Gillespie. Start by entering Happy into the text box, the result will be displayed in the main window. You can change the font with the drop-down menu, to the side of the text box; we’ve opted for Big. STEP 2 Now create a folder in your Python code directory on your computer (call it Test, for now), and open either Notepad for a Windows 10 computer, or, if you’re using Linux, then the currently installed text editor.…

VOID(C++, MISTAKES) Admittedly it’s not just C++ beginners that make the kinds of errors we outline on these pages, even hardened coders are prone to the odd mishap here and there. Here are some common issues to try and avoid. UNDECLARED IDENTIFIERS A common C++ mistake, and to be honest a common mistake with most programming languages, is when you try and output a variable that doesn’t exist. Displaying the value of x on-screen is fine but not if you haven’t told the compiler what the value of x is to begin with. SEMICOLONS Remember that each line of a C++ program must end with a semicolon. If it doesn’t then the compiler treats the line with the missing semicolon as the same line with the next semicolon on. This…

#INCLUDE<KEEP ON LEARNING> What can you do to further your skills, learn new coding practises, experiment and present your code and even begin to help others using what you’ve experienced so far? TWITTER Twitter isn’t all trolls and antagonists, among the well-publicised vitriol are some genuine people who are more than willing to spread their coding knowledge. We recommend you find a few who you can relate to and follow them. Often they post great tips, hacks and fixes for common coding problems. KEEP CODING If you’ve mastered Python fairly well, then turn your attention to C++ or even C#. Still keep your Python skills going but learning a new coding language keeps the old brain ticking over nicely and gives you a view into another community, and how they…